History of International Human Resource Management

History of International Human Resource Management Up until the 1960s, even firms operating internationally maintained organizational structures with centralised technical and managerial resources, manufacturing ability, and the access to and control of the capital (Doz Prahalad 1981). As exports increased, it was seen as more attractive to establish sales subsidiaries in other countries, often staffing them with skilled personnel from the home country. These expatriates had the necessary product knowledge, and could even initiate local manufacture, but also had a perceived primary loyalty to the home company and country culture. Unfortunately, this was also an era of convergence thinking (usually towards the dominant U.S. culture), with sometimes lamentably littleattention being given to national sensitivities and cultural beliefs and behaviours With the developing internationalisation of many firms in the late 1960s and early 1970s, companies established overseas plants and entered joint ventures with foreign affiliates. Firms sought commercial success through moving closer to their customers by employing more host-country nationals. In some situations, they aimed at being perceived more as local rather than foreign, for various reasons. In the 1990s, not only has the practice of IHRM become more sophisticated, but research into its policy and practice has become established. It has a developing body of research and practice which is regularly considered at dedicated conferences, and published in general management as well as HRM journals. Increasingly, international HRM is being taught in university faculties of business management courses, and management MBA graduates, as well as graduates in HRM, are now more frequently aware of the issues involved, and the functions of HRM in an international context. International human resource management What an HR manager does in a multinational corporation varies from firm to firm. It also depends on whether the manager is located in a global corporations headquarters or onsite in a foreign subsidiary. What is IHRM? Actually, it is not easy to provide a precise definition of international human resource management (IHRM) because the mission of an HR manger in a multinational corporation (MNC) varies on a large scale. Generally speaking, IHRM is the effective utilization of human resources in a corporation in an international environment. The term IHRM in most studies has traditionally focused on the area of expatriation (Brewster and Harris, 1999) Broadly defined, international human resource management (IHRM) is the process of procuring, allocating, and effectively utilising human resources in a multinational corporation. If the MNC is simply exporting its products, with only a few small offices in foreign locations, then the task of the international HR manager is relatively simple. However, in global firms human resource managers must achieve two somewhat conflicting strategic objectives. First, they must integrate human resource policies and practices across a number of subsidiaries in different countries so that overall corporate objectives can be achieved. At the same time, the approach to HRM must be sufficiently flexible to allow for significant differences in the type of HR policies and practices that are most effective in different business and cultural settings. This problem of balancing integration (control and coordination from HQ) and differentiation (flexibility in policies and practices at the local subsidiary level) have long been acknowledged as common dilemmas facing HR and other functional managers in global corporations. Although some argue that IHRM is not unlike HRM in a domestic setting, others point out that there  are significant differences. Specifically compared with domestic HRM, IHRM (I) encompasses more functions, (2) has more heterogeneous functions, (3) involves constantly changing perspectives, (4) requires more involvement in employees personal lives, (5) is influenced by more external sources, and (6) involves a greater level of risk than typical domestic HRM. When compared with domestic human resource management, IHRM requires a much broader perspective on even the most common HR activities. This is particularly so for HR managers operating from a MNCs headquarters (HQ). The number and variety of IHRM activities are daunting. International HR managers must deal with issues as varied as international taxation; international relocation and orientation; various other administrative services for expatriates; selecting, training and appraising local and international employees; and managing relations with host governments in a number of countries around the world. Even when dealing with one particular HR function area such as compensation, the international HR manager is faced with a great variety of national and international pay issues. For example, while dealing with pay issues, the HQ-based HR manager must coordinate pay systems in different countries with different currencies that may change in relative value to one another over time. An American expatriate in Tokyo who receives a salary of $100,000 may suddenly find the buying power of that salary dramatically diminished if the Japanese yen strengthens in value relative to the US dollar. A US dollar purchased 248 yen in 1985, but less than 110 yen in 2000. In the case of fringe benefits provided to host company employees, some interesting complications might arise. For instance, it is common in the United States to provide health insurance benefits to employees and the employees family, which usually means spouse and children. In some countries however, the term family may include a more extended group of relatives-multiple spouses, aunts, uncles, grandparents, nephews, and nieces. How does the firms benefit plan deal with these different definitions of family? A final aspect of the broader scope of IHRM is that the HQ-based manager deals with employee groups that have different cultural backgrounds. The HQ manager must coordinate policies and procedures to manage expatriates from the firms home country (parent country nationals, PNCs), host-country nationals (HCNs), as well as third country nationals (TCNs, e.g. a French manager working for an American MNC in the firms Nigerian subsidiary) in subsidiaries around the world. Although such issues are important for the HQ-based manager, they are also relevant to the HR manager located in a subsidiary. This manager must develop HR systems that are not only acceptable to the host country but also compatible with company-wide systems being developed by his or her HQ-based counterpart. These policies and practices must effectively balance the needs and desires of local employees, PCNs and TCNs. It is at the subsidiary level that the increased involvement of IHRM in the personal lives of employees becomes particularly apparent. It is not unusual for subsidiary HR managers to be involved in arranging housing, healthcare, transportation, education, and recreation activities for expatriate and local staff. IHRM activities are also influenced by a greater number of external forces than are domestic HR activities. The HQ-based manager may have to set equal employment opportunity (EEO) policies that meet the legal requirements of both the home country and a number of host countries. Because of the visibility that foreign firms tend to have in host countries (especially in developing countries), subsidiary HR managers may have to deal with ministers, other political figures, and a great variety of social and economic interest groups than would normally be encountered in a purely domestic HRM. Excerpt from Human Resource Management by Cynthia D Fisher, Lyle F Schoenfeldt, James B Shaw. Published by Biztantra

Evolution Vs Creation :: essays research papers

Creation vs. Evolution Is Evolution Biologically Impossible? How creationists justify their position against the evolutionary process, and how evolutionists answer them. The Overwhelming Odds against Spontaneous Generation Perhaps the most common scientific argument against the evolutionary theory used by creationists is the mathematical impossibility for the occurrence of successful changes in the DNA that actually results in a development of a new or modified species. What are the chances of evolving the DNA molecule - crucial to all life - by natural processes? Without an outside controlling designer of some kind, it is virtually impossible. Creationists argue that the complexity of a cell is extremely sophisticated and that the new and detailed understanding of the DNA molecules has revealed enormous problems for evolutionists belief in materialism. Creationists argue that in function, DNA is somewhat like a computer program on floppy disk. That it stores and transfers encoded information and instructions. They refer to publications saying that the DNA of a human stores enough information code to fill 1,000 books – each with 500 pages of very small closely printed type. Creationists compare the DNA code with computers, they say that DNA produces a product far more sophisticated than that of any computer. This enormous set of instructions fits within a single cell and routinely directs the formation of entire adult humans, starting with just a single fertilized egg. Even the DNA of a bacterium is highly complex, containing at least 3 million units that all are aligned in a very precise, meaningful sequence. DNA is described as a miniaturized marvel and with information so compactly stored that the amount of DNA necessary to code all the people living on our planet might fit into a space no larger than an aspirin tablet. Creation scientists are convinced that cells containing such a complex code and such intricate chemistry could never have come into being by pure, undirected chemistry. They claim that no matter how chemicals are mixed, they do not create DNA spirals or any intelligent code whatsoever. Only DNA reproduces DNA. Creationist also refers to scientists who calculated the odds of life forming by natural processes. Some estimated that there is less than 1 chance in 1040,000 that life could have originated by random trials. 10 to the 40.000th is a 1 with 40.000 zeros after it! However, here I found many different calculations published. Some said the chance was 10 to the 4.

Internet Privacy Essay

Electronic commerce (e-commerce) is a great opportunity for any fledging entrepreneur to expose his goods to buyers all over the world through the internet. Small and medium scale businesses, with the right mixture of products and e-commerce capabilities can thrive in a global market. Geography is now longer a hindrance. One doesn’t even need a great amount of capital outlay to get started. For $ 25 a month, one can get an e-commerce start up kit (â€Å"Exploring E-Commerce†). Every imaginable commodity is now sold on-line. It would be wise for any business minded person to ride the information age. Of course, one area of concern when it comes to electronic transactions is security. There have been many instances where credit card information submitted to certain business related websites were stolen and used for other purposes. Customers would need some measure of guarantee that they are not getting scammed. At the same time, businessmen, especially the newer ones, would like to minimize costs of implementing a highly secure environment. Like everything else, a balance must be reached between security for the customer and cost for the business owner. The advantage of a non-secure e-commerce environment is that the business can start right away, even at the comfort of your own home if you prefer. Starting capital would be affordable since one only needs to register a website name and post the products he is offering. The site functions as a showroom for global customers. The disadvantage is that the number of hits on the site doesn’t necessarily translate to customers. 54% of prospective buyers cancel their transactions because of concerns which include insecurity (â€Å"Exploring E-Commerce†). Another disadvantage is that safe payment options are limited. Because non-secure e-commerce sites are vulnerable to hacker attacks, customers would prefer not to use any kind of electronic payment. This would limit the customer’s options to bank deposits and cash-on-delivery schemes. If credit card payment is offered in an insecure web environment, the risk of theft is increased. Overly secured e-commerce sites provide the customer with a blanket of safety and convenience for both the customer and the site owner. With up to date security measures, the owner opens his business to the more than 1. 2 billion credit card owners, world wide (â€Å"Exploring E-Commerce†). Applying encryption methods such as the widely accepted secure socket layer (SSL) certificates on the business website shields important customer information, like credit card numbers, from hackers and other web predators. One disadvantage of a highly secure e-commerce setup is the cost in putting up the safeguards. Verisign, the company that offers SSL certificates, charges over $1,000 for an extended SSL good for 1 year (â€Å"Verisign†, 2007). Other security costs include purchasing and updating of anti-virus software and firewall infrastructure. A minor inconvenience for the customer would be repeated input of customer information including passwords to help secure a transaction. These are not one time only costs. SSL and anti-virus software need regular updates to adapt to relentless hackers and virus code programmers. Even with all of these, there is still no 100% guarantee that the e-business is safe since security is meant to â€Å"manage not eliminate risks† (Tung, 2007). If the entrepreneur is new to the e-commerce business and confined with a limited budget, it is advisable that he start with registering the website first and live with the payment limitations. If the product is good, and the owner makes up for the limitations with above average service like on time delivery and packaging, then he may gradually add components that would make his e-business more secure. If money is no object to the businessman, then adding market accepted security features will certainly not hurt and will even attract repeat business. References: E-commerce 101. Retrieved December 10, 2007, from Sell it on the web Web site: http://sellitontheweb. com/ezine/webstore101. shtml Exploring E-Commerce. Entrepreneur. com , Retrieved December 10, 2007, from http://www. entrepreneur. com/growyourbusiness/howtoguides/article81238. html Tung, Liam (2007, November 2007). ‘Friendly rootkits’ proposed for safe e-commerce. Retrieved December 10, 2007, from ZDNet. co. uk Web site: http://news. zdnet. co. uk/internet/0,1000000097,39291134,00. htm? r=2 Verisign (2007). Retrieved December 10, 2007, Web site: https://ssl-certificate- center. verisign. com/process/retail/product_selector? uid=f149c3d301a629c3897d6187982dbfe7

We Must Protect The Rainforest - 1266 Words

Did you know that before threats from humans, the rainforests covered almost 15% of the earth? Now rainforests only cover 6% of the earth around the world. I believe we should protect the rainforest because they provide habitats and food for lots of species, their trees help prevent climate change, it helps the inhabitants of the rainforest survive, and it provides natural medicines around the world. As I said, rainforests provide natural medicines, food, and habitats for lots of species. The rainforest provides everyday things like avocados, cashews, guavas, black pepper, coconuts, figs, citrus fruits like oranges and lemons, bananas, corn, yams, cloves, vanilla, and chocolate. Andrew Einspruch, author of, â€Å"Rainforest Habitats,† states in the book, â€Å"80% of what people eat in the developed world first came from a rainforest somewhere.† and Rainforest Foundation states that, â€Å"About 1.2 billion people in the world rely on the rainforest for their survival.† This shows how much the Rainforests are important to people around the world. Other than food from the rainforest, you also get many natural medicines to help with sicknesses and diseases. 90% of known diseases can be treated with prescription drugs from nature, and in the book, â€Å"Rainforest Habitats,† it states, â€Å"In 1991, researchers found a substance in twigs of a partic ular Malaysian gum tree that blocked the spread of the AIDS virus in human cells. A team of biologist rushed back to Malaysia to get more, butShow MoreRelated The Rainforest and Deforestataion Essay1099 Words   |  5 PagesWHY ARE RAINFORESTS IMPORTANT? Rainforests are important to the global ecosystem. Rainforests: ? provide a home to many plants and animals, ? help stabilize the worlds climate, ? protect against flood, drought, and erosion, ? are a source for medicines and foods, ? support tribal people, and ? are an interesting place to visit RAINFORESTS HELP STABILIZE CLIMATE Rainforests help stabilize the worlds climate by absorbing carbon dioxide from the atmosphere. Excess carbon dioxideRead MoreThe Amazon Rainforest Of South America1503 Words   |  7 Pages The Amazon Rainforest of South America spans over nine countries with the greatest portion nestled in Brazil. It is considered the largest rainforest in the nation. Most notably, it consists of approximately one-fifth of the total tree vegetation currently growing around the world. Furthermore, the Amazon Rainforest is home to a commodity of natural resources, from tropical hardwoods to oil to minerals to plant, fungi and bacteria used in medicines. Similarly, over five hundred species of mammalsRead MoreEnvironmental Issue: Tropical Rainforest Deforestation1624 Words   |  7 PagesIn all rainforest regions in the world, deforestation has become a major problem. The rainforest is arguably the most complicated and largely interwoven ecosystem on land. However, this treasure is being lost and demolished day by day, the land being cleared away for the pure interest of money making, in the process of deforestation. Not only are thousands of species of organisms being driven to extinction, but we are also effectively eliminating any chance of studying many of the species. AlsoRead MoreDeforestation And Deforestation Of Deforestation973 Words   |  4 Pagesalarming to know the statistics associated with deforestation. For example, by the year 2030, only ten percent of rainforests may be left (Deforestation Facts and Statistics). Although the lumber harvested from these rainforests across the world serve important purposes, it is unbelievable about the price nature has to pay. The bottom line is: Deforestation of the world’s rainforests is not worth the price paid and two ways to fix it is to push the government to support organizations that push forRead MoreThe Issues Surrounding The Amazon Rainforest1206 Words   |  5 Pages The Denver Academy has recently researched and defined some of the important facts surrounding the Amazon rainforest. In 2017, the Amazon rainforest covers 2.1 million square miles of South America. It is a vast ecosystem home to 10% of the world’s known species (The Denver Academy). They go on to say that the trees are so dense, when it rains, it takes 10 minutes for the water to break through the forest roof. The destruction of this habitat could lead to extinction of these species, and have devastatingRead MoreDeforestation as a Global Issue Essay1448 Words   |  6 Pagesto write an assignment on the effects and causes of the deforestation-taking place in the Amazon rainforest. During this assignment I shall investigate the following topics:  · Why has deforestation taken place in the Amazon rainforest?  · Can the government of Brazilsolve this major  · Before and after destruction issue?  · What are the developments in the rainforest?  · What are the negative consequences of deforestation?  · Identify the main green house gasesRead MoreDisadvantages Of Deforestation1355 Words   |  6 PagesNature s forest and because of that, it must be stopped. Rainforests, shrubs, or even a flower, they all provide a lot for the world, big or small, so it’s important that we preserve these great, beautiful, emerald gems. One of the great benefits of the Rainforests are emphasized by professional resource writer Anna Mazzaro at Montclair State University â€Å"Tropical rain forests can save your life. About one-fourth of all the medicines we use now come from rainforest plants.† (Montclair State UniversityRead MoreEssay on Ending Destruction of the Rainforest1339 Words   |  6 PagesEnding Destruction of the Rainforest As destruction of the rainforest continues, man slowly paves the inevitable path to a clear end. It has been known that the rainforest is an essential provider for the balance of the mother earth and that it acts as a key for life as we know it. Yet, the world still decides to quietly watch the disappearance. In fact, most people realize what exactly is taking place. But however, instead of trying to aid in the termination of this disaster. They placeRead MoreCompany Law 266 Assignment1304 Words   |  6 Pagesprotected by law. All the limited companies must have â€Å"limited ;( â€Å"Ltd†) â€Å"proprietary limited† ( â€Å"Pty†); or â€Å"Pty Ltd† as part of their names (Corporate Law 2001).The directors want to set up a proprietary company, So the company name should include â€Å"Pty†. (1) A name is available to a company unless the name is identical (under rules set out in the regulations) to a name that is reserved or registered under this Act for another body (Corporate Law 2001). We use the search engine in ASIC website toRead MorePersuasive Essay On Deforestation1125 Words   |  5 PagesDeforestation is one of the most challenging problems we face in our world today. A problem that, if it continues, could have devastating consequences for all life on earth. Life on earth is a delicate system of checks and balances that keep everything running smoothly. When something in the system is changed other things must be moved around to make up for the changes. So, when a large area of forest is destroyed and the species that lived there are forced to relocate elsewhere the tension that